Radio signal identification, identification system learning, and identifier deployment

ABSTRACT

Methods, systems, and apparatus, including computer programs encoded on computer storage media, for training and deploying machine-learned identification of radio frequency (RF) signals. One of the methods includes: determining an RF signal configured to be transmitted through an RF band of a communication medium; determining first classification information that is associated with the RF signal, and that includes a representation of a characteristic of the RF signal or a characteristic of an environment in which the RF signal is communicated; using at least one machine-learning network to process the RF signal and generate second classification information as a prediction of the first classification information; calculating a measure of distance between (i) the second classification information that was generated by the at least one machine-learning network, and (ii) the first classification information associated with the RF signal; and updating the at least one machine-learning network based on the measure of distance.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.15/961,465, filed Apr. 24, 2018, now allowed, which claims priority toU.S. Provisional Application Nos. 62/489,055 and 62/489,057 both filedon Apr. 24, 2017, and 62/500,621 filed on May 3, 2017. The disclosuresof these prior applications are considered part of and are incorporatedby reference in the disclosure of this application.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under agreementHR0011-16-1-0002 awarded by U.S. Defense Advanced Research ProjectsAgency. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to identification of radio frequency (RF)signals.

BACKGROUND

Radio frequency (RF) waveforms are prevalent in many systems forcommunication, storage, sensing, measurements, and monitoring. RFwaveforms are transmitted and received through various types ofcommunication media, such as over the air, under water, or through outerspace. In some scenarios, RF waveforms transmit information that ismodulated onto one or more carrier waveforms operating at RFfrequencies. In other scenarios, RF waveforms are themselvesinformation, such as outputs of sensors or probes. Information that iscarried in RF waveforms is typically processed, stored, and/ortransported through other forms of communication, such as through aninternal system bus in a computer or through local or wide-areanetworks.

SUMMARY

In general, the subject matter described in this disclosure can beembodied in methods, apparatuses, and systems for training and deployingmachine-learning networks to identify or process, or both, radiofrequency (RF) signals.

In one aspect, a method is disclosed for training at least onemachine-learning network to classify radio frequency (RF) signals. Themethod includes: determining an RF signal that is configured to betransmitted through an RF band of a communication medium; determiningfirst classification information associated with the RF signal, thefirst classification information comprising a representation of at leastone of a characteristic of the RF signal or a characteristic of anenvironment in which the RF signal is communicated; using at least onemachine-learning network to process the RF signal and generate secondclassification information as a prediction of the first classificationinformation; calculating a measure of distance between (i) the secondclassification information that was generated by the at least onemachine-learning network, and (ii) the first classification informationthat was associated with the RF signal; and updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the measure of distance between thesecond classification information and the first classificationinformation. Other implementations of this aspect include correspondingcomputer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one ormore computer storage devices, each configured to cause at least oneoperably connected processor to perform the actions of the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Themethod where the measure of distance between the second classificationinformation and the first classification information includes at leastone of (i) a cross-entropy between the second classification informationand the first classification information, or (ii) a geometric distancemetric between the second classification information and the firstclassification information. The method where the first classificationinformation and the second classification information indicate at leastone of (i) a type of modulation utilized to transmit the RF signal, (ii)a type of traffic, protocol, or standard that is carried by or that isutilized to transmit the RF signal, (iii) a type of hardware apparatusthat transmits or receives the RF signal, (iv) a type of RF emission ora type of RF emission pattern occurring in the communication medium, or(v) a presence of one or more types of communications signals. Themethod where using the at least one machine-learning network to processthe RF signal and generate the second classification informationincludes: determining a plurality of basis signals; processing the RFsignal using the plurality of basis signals to generate a plurality ofbasis coefficients for the RF signal. The method may also includegenerating the second classification information based on the pluralityof basis coefficients of the RF signal. The method where updating the atleast one machine-learning network based on the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information includes: updating the plurality of basissignals that are utilized to process RF signals, based on the measure ofdistance between the second classification information and the firstclassification information. The method where updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the measure of distance between thesecond classification information and the first classificationinformation includes: determining an objective function that includesthe measure of distance between the second classification informationand the first classification information. The method may also includecalculating a rate of change of the objective function relative tovariations in the at least one machine-learning network. The method mayalso include selecting, based on the calculated rate of change of theobjective function, a variation for the at least one machine-learningnetwork. The method may also include updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the selected variation for the atleast one machine-learning network. The method where the objectivefunction includes a weighted combination of the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information with at least one of: (i) a computationalthroughput or delay achieved by the at least one machine-learningnetwork in classifying RF signals, (ii) a computational dwell timeassociated with the at least one machine-learning network in classifyingRF signals, or (iii) a computational duty cycle associated with the atleast one machine-learning network in classifying RF signals. The methodwhere updating the at least one machine-learning network includes:updating at least one network weight or at least one connection in oneor more layers of at least one artificial neural network that forms partof the at least one machine-learning network. The method where using theat least one machine-learning network to process the RF signal andgenerate the second classification information further includes:determining, based on the at least one machine-learning network, a firsttime scale for processing the RF signal. The method may also includeusing the at least one machine-learning network to processes the RFsignal based on the first time scale. The method may also include whereupdating the at least one machine-learning network further includesupdating the first time scale to a second time scale based on themeasure of distance between the second classification information andthe first classification information. The method where the RF signalincludes at least one of an acoustic RF signal, an optical RF signal, orother analog RF signal that is configured to be transmitted and receivedby man-made RF communication systems. Implementations of the describedtechniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computersoftware on a computer-accessible medium. Implementations of thedescribed techniques may include hardware, a method or process, orcomputer software on a computer-accessible medium.

In another aspect, a method is disclosed for deploying at least onemachine-learning network that has been trained to classify radiofrequency (RF) signals. The method includes: determining at least onemachine-learning network has been trained to classify RF signalsconfigured to be transmitted through an RF band of a communicationmedium; setting at least one parameter of an RF receiver based on thetrained at least one machine-learning network; using the RF receiver toreceive an analog RF waveform from an RF spectrum of the communicationmedium, and to process the analog RF waveform to generate adiscrete-time representation of the analog RF waveform as a received RFsignal; and using the at least one trained machine-learning network toprocess the received RF signal and generate predicted RF signalclassification information, wherein the predicted RF signalclassification information comprises a representation of at least one ofa characteristic of the received RF signal or a characteristic of anenvironment in which the received RF signal was communicated. Otherimplementations of this aspect include corresponding computer systems,apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computerstorage devices, each configured to cause at least one operablyconnected processor to perform the actions of the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Themethod where setting the at least one parameter of the RF receiver basedon the at least one machine-learning network includes: setting at leastone of a tuning parameter, a filtering parameter, a scheduling ofoperations, or a channelization parameter of the RF receiver accordingto the at least one trained machine-learning network, or according toupdates to the at least one trained machine-learning network. The methodwhere using the at least one trained machine-learning network to processthe received RF signal and generate the predicted RF signalclassification information includes: determining a plurality of basissignals; processing the received RF signal using the plurality of basissignals to generate a plurality of basis coefficients of the received RFsignal. The method may also include perform classification on theplurality of basis coefficients of the received RF signal. The methodmay also include output a result of the classification as the predictedRF signal classification information. The method where the predicted RFsignal classification information indicates at least one of (i) a typeof modulation utilized to transmit the received RF signal, (ii) a typeof traffic, protocol, or standard that is carried by or that is utilizedto transmit the received RF signal, (iii) a type of hardware apparatusthat transmits or receives the received RF signal, (iv) a type of RFemission or a type of RF emission pattern occurring in the communicationmedium, or (v) a presence of one or more types of communicationssignals. The method where the at least one trained machine-learningnetwork includes at least one artificial neural network that has beentrained using an objective function that includes a measure of distancebetween (i) known classification information for an RF training signal,and (ii) predicted classification information for the RF training signalthat was generated by the at least one trained machine-learning network.Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, amethod or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium.

Another aspect includes a system including: at least one processor; andat least one computer memory that is operably connectable to the atleast one processor and that has stored thereon instructions which, whenexecuted by the at least one processor, cause the at least one processorto perform operations including: determining an RF signal that isconfigured to be transmitted through an RF band of a communicationmedium; determining first classification information associated with theRF signal, the first classification information including arepresentation of at least one of a characteristic of the RF signal or acharacteristic of an environment in which the RF signal is communicated;using at least one machine-learning network to process the RF signal andgenerate second classification information as a prediction of the firstclassification information; calculating a measure of distance between(i) the second classification information that was generated by the atleast one machine-learning network, and (ii) the first classificationinformation that was associated with the RF signal; and updating the atleast one machine-learning network based on the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information. Other implementations of this aspect includecorresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programsrecorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured tocause at least one operably connected processor to perform the actionsof the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Thesystem where the measure of distance between the second classificationinformation and the first classification information includes at leastone of (i) a cross-entropy between the second classification informationand the first classification information, or (ii) a geometric distancemetric between the second classification information and the firstclassification information. The system where the first classificationinformation and the second classification information indicate at leastone of (i) a type of modulation utilized to transmit the RF signal, (ii)a type of traffic, protocol, or standard that is carried by or that isutilized to transmit the RF signal, (iii) a type of hardware apparatusthat transmits or receives the RF signal, (iv) a type of RF emission ora type of RF emission patterns occurring in the communication medium, or(v) a presence of one or more types of communications signals. Thesystem where using the at least one machine-learning network to processthe RF signal and generate the second classification informationincludes: determining a plurality of basis signals; processing the RFsignal using the plurality of basis signals to generate a plurality ofbasis coefficients for the RF signal. The system may also includegenerating the second classification information based on the pluralityof basis coefficients of the RF signal. The system where updating the atleast one machine-learning network based on the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information includes: updating the plurality of basissignals that are utilized to process RF signals, based on the measure ofdistance between the second classification information and the firstclassification information. The system where updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the measure of distance between thesecond classification information and the first classificationinformation includes: determining an objective function that includesthe measure of distance between the second classification informationand the first classification information. The system may also includecalculating a rate of change of the objective function relative tovariations in the at least one machine-learning network. The system mayalso include selecting, based on the calculated rate of change of theobjective function, a variation for the at least one machine-learningnetwork. The system may also include updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the selected variation for the atleast one machine-learning network. The system where the objectivefunction includes a weighted combination of the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information with at least one of: (i) a computationalthroughput or delay achieved by the at least one machine-learningnetwork in classifying RF signals, (ii) a computational dwell timeassociated with the at least one machine-learning network in classifyingRF signals, or (iii) a computational duty cycle associated with the atleast one machine-learning network in classifying RF signals. The systemwhere updating the at least one machine-learning network includes:updating at least one network weight or at least one connection in oneor more layers of at least one artificial neural network that forms partof the at least one machine-learning network. The system where using theat least one machine-learning network to process the RF signal andgenerate the second classification information further includes:determining, based on the at least one machine-learning network, a firsttime scale for processing the RF signal. The system may also includeusing the at least one machine-learning network to processes the RFsignal based on the first time scale. The system may also include whereupdating the at least one machine-learning network further includesupdating the first time scale to a second time scale based on themeasure of distance between the second classification information andthe first classification information. The system where the RF signalincludes at least one of an acoustic RF signal, an optical RF signal, orother analog RF signal that is configured to be transmitted and receivedby man-made RF communication systems. Implementations of the describedtechniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computersoftware on a computer-accessible medium.

Another aspect includes a system including: at least one processor; andat least one computer memory that is operably connectable to the atleast one processor and that has stored thereon instructions which, whenexecuted by the at least one processor, cause the at least one processorto perform operations including: determining at least onemachine-learning network has been trained to classify RF signalsconfigured to be transmitted through an RF band of a communicationmedium; setting at least one parameter of an RF receiver based on the atleast one trained machine-learning network; using the RF receiver toreceive an analog RF waveform from an RF spectrum of the communicationmedium, and to process the analog RF waveform to generate adiscrete-time representation of the analog RF waveform as a received RFsignal; and using the at least one trained machine-learning network toprocess the received RF signal and generate predicted RF signalclassification information, where the predicted RF signal classificationinformation includes a representation of at least one of acharacteristic of the received RF signal or a characteristic of anenvironment in which the received RF signal was communicated. Otherimplementations of this aspect include corresponding computer systems,apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computerstorage devices, each configured to cause at least one operablyconnected processor to perform the actions of the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Thesystem where setting the at least one parameter of the RF receiver basedon the at least one machine-learning network includes: setting at leastone of a tuning parameter, a filtering parameter, or a channelizationparameter of the RF receiver according to the at least one trainedmachine-learning network, or according to updates to the at least onetrained machine-learning network. The system where using the at leastone trained machine-learning network to process the received RF signaland generate the predicted RF signal classification informationincludes: determining a plurality of basis signals; processing thereceived RF signal using the plurality of basis signals to generate aplurality of basis coefficients of the received RF signal. The systemmay also include perform classification on the plurality of basiscoefficients of the received RF signal. The system may also includeoutput a result of the classification as the predicted RF signalclassification information. The system where the predicted RF signalclassification information indicates at least one of (i) a type ofmodulation utilized to transmit the received RF signal, (ii) a type oftraffic, protocol, or standard that is carried by or that is utilized totransmit the received RF signal, (iii) a type of hardware apparatus thattransmits or receives the received RF signal, (iv) a type of RF emissionor a type of RF emission pattern sequence occurring in the communicationmedium, or (v) a presence of one or more types of communicationssignals. The system where the at least one trained machine-learningnetwork includes at least one artificial neural network that has beentrained using an objective function that includes a measure of distancebetween (i) known classification information for an RF training signal,and (ii) predicted classification information for the RF training signalthat was generated by the at least one trained machine-learning network.Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, amethod or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium.

Other implementations of this and other aspects include correspondingsystems, apparatuses, and computer programs, configured to perform theactions of the methods, encoded on computer storage devices. A system ofone or more computers can be so configured by virtue of software,firmware, hardware, or a combination of them installed on the systemthat in operation cause the system to perform the actions. One or morecomputer programs can be so configured by virtue of having instructionsthat, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause the apparatus toperform the actions.

All or part of the features described throughout this application can beimplemented as a computer program product including instructions thatare stored on one or more non-transitory machine-readable storage media,and that are executable on one or more processing devices. All or partof the features described throughout this application can be implementedas an apparatus, method, or electronic system that can include one ormore processing devices and memory to store executable instructions toimplement the stated functions.

The details of one or more implementations of the subject matter of thisdisclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and thedescription below. Other features, aspects, and advantages of thesubject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings,and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a radio frequency (RF) system thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals;

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a structure of an RF systemimplementing at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals;

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a structure of an RF systemimplementing at least one machine-learning network to learn and mergeraw time-series RF signal information with features that are extractedfrom the RF signal to perform learned identification of RF signals;

FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating an example method of training atleast one machine-learning network to perform learned identification ofRF signals;

FIG. 5 illustrates an example system of training an RF system thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals;

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating an example system of deploying an RFsystem implementing at least one machine-learning network that has beentrained to perform learned identification of RF signals;

FIG. 7 illustrates an example of deploying an RF system including atleast one machine-learning network that has been trained to performlearned identification of RF signals;

FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an example method of using at leastone machine-learning network to process an RF signal and generatepredicted signal RF signal classification information by determining aplurality of basis signals; and

FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating an example of a computing system thatmay be used to implement one or more components of an RF system thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Systems and techniques are disclosed herein that enable machine learningand deployment of identification of radio frequency (RF) signals. Insome implementations, such systems and techniques are able to identifyan RF signal and label the RF signal, which may be a series of receivedradio samples, with classification information regarding acharacteristic of the RF signal or a characteristic of an environment inwhich the RF signal is communicated. Such classification information mayinclude for example, a high-level human understandable name, a category,a radio protocol, information about the transmission method or contentsthat are transmitted, or a radio device name.

The machine-learning RF signal classification system may learn featuresto discriminate radio signal types from one another, based on rawsampled time-series radio data as well as labels for that data. Thelabels may be provided manually, programmatically (e.g., in scenarioswhere RF data and labels are generated by simulations), or through othertechniques of label estimation. In some implementations, the system maycombine learned features with additional expert features to formestimates of the RF signal type that is present.

A machine-learning system may be trained to learn a system for RF signalidentification, for example by training on a classification model basedon a large set of RF signal and labeling data. The machine-learningsystem may then be deployed with a fixed training model or with onlinemodel adaptation that are updated based on observations, experience,performance metrics, and/or feedback from users or higher levelapplications. As such, implementations disclosed herein enable quick andaccurate sensing of the radio spectrum, which is a critically importanttask for a number of important applications.

Techniques disclosed herein may be applied to various scenarios in thefield of digital radio signal processing. For example, implementationsdisclosed herein may enable federal regulators or operators to identifyradio-signal emitter devices in licensed and unlicensed radio bands,thereby helping ensure that the signal is authorized to be emanatingfrom an intended location or is not malfunctioning and producingunintended interference. As another example, implementations disclosedherein may enable organizations to perform quick and accurate sensing ofthe radio spectrum to identify hostile signals or wireless cyber-attacksmore efficiently, and/or to identify and organize optimal allocationamong friendly radio emitter devices.

Radio sensing techniques typically have significant power budgets andare developed using highly specialized algorithms that rely on specificanalytic knowledge of the composition of certain types of target radiosignals. The significant power budgets or the highly specialized natureof algorithms, or both, can severely limit the extent to which radiosensing and classification techniques are deployed and scaled todifferent signal types, signal environments or deployment devices inactual use. Furthermore, such algorithms may degrade under certainhardware effects or channel propagation conditions, such as when fadingor intermodulation distortion is present and changes the radio signalfrom its ideal form.

By contrast, signal identification systems and techniques disclosedherein provide novel approaches that utilize machine learning to learnappropriate techniques for identifying RF signals, such asdistinguishing between different signal types, directly from time-seriesRF waveforms, such as sampled radio recording of a radio transmission.In some implementations, machine learning may be performed without, orwith minimal, reliance on expert feature design, such as analyticderivation of specific hand crafted features designed for specificmodulations. By learning features directly from RF signals,implementations disclosed herein enable signal identification systems toadapt rapidly to different types of new signals while reducinglabor-intensive and time-consuming engineering and design work to changea large number of internal algorithms in order to support a newmodulation type, channel effect or other signal label.

In some scenarios, implementations disclosed herein may provide energyefficiency advantages by performing signal identification in aconcurrent way, which facilitates many-core or distributed FPGAimplementations. For example, systems and techniques disclosed hereinmay be implemented using a highly concurrent (e.g. distributed many-coreor distributed logic synthesis) architecture and low clock rates (e.g.,approximately 10s or 100s of MHz instead of GHz). In another example,the disclosed approach also allows for the usage of lower precision datatypes (e.g., 8 or 16 bit integer/float or less, instead of 32 or 64 bitfloats) requiring less bits per operation to preserve the dynamic rangeand performance of the signal, allowing as well for lower powerimplementations which utilize fewer logic gates than more traditionalfeature-based approaches in many cases. As such, implementationsdisclosed herein may enable improved power efficiency of mili-Watts orsingle-digit Watts as compared to higher power systems which may consumetens or hundreds of Watts.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a radio frequency (RF) system 100 thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals. In some implementations, the system 100 isimplemented in a training scenario to train a machine-learning network102. In other implementations, the system 100 is used in a deploymentscenario to utilize a pre-trained machine-learning network 102.

As shown in FIG. 1 , the system 100 includes a machine-learning network102 that may be trained and deployed to receive an RF signal 104 andgenerate predicted classification information 106. In general, themachine-learning network 102 may utilize any suitable mapping of RFsignals 104 to predicted RF signal classification information 106, asdiscussed in more detail with reference to FIGS. 2-5 , below.

The predicted classification information 106 may represent variousfeatures related to the RF signal 104. For example, classificationinformation 106 may represent a characteristic of the RF signal 104and/or a characteristic of an environment in which the RF signal 104 iscommunicated. In some implementations, the classification informationmay include one or more labels, and may indicate deterministic orstatistical classification information (e.g., likelihoods and/orprobabilities). The classification information 106 may, in someimplementations, include human-readable information, such ashuman-readable labels.

As examples, the classification information may indicate characteristicsof the RF signal and/or the environment of the RF signals, such as amodulation type of RF signals (e.g. QPSK, BPSK, OOK, FSK, GMSK, OFDM,etc.); a type of protocol or standard that is carried on or that isutilized to transmit RF signals (e.g., GSM, LTE, Wi-Fi 802.11g, LTE-5MHz-TDD, HSPA, P25, etc.); a specific radio device utilized to transmitor receive RF signals, a tower or user associated with RF signals. Asanother example, the classification information may indicate a type oftraffic, behavior or other contents that are being carried by the RFsignal, such as normal usage on a wireless channel, types of applicationdata, or nefarious attacks on the wireless channel (e.g., flooding,probing or jamming attacks). In these cases, detection of such eventsmay result in triggering an alarm, triggering a configuration change inan electronic device such as a router or firewall, reconfiguration of awireless system, or otherwise.

As further examples, the classification information may indicate a typeof RF emission or a type of RF emission pattern (e.g., a particularsequence of data bits or other pattern in the RF emission that can bedistinguished and identified) occurring, which may indicateelectromagnetic interference (EMI), malicious interference (e.g.,snooping), or a noise source (e.g., communication channel noise orhardware noise). The type of RF emission or RF emission pattern may beutilized to determine specific events of interest, such as equipmentmalfunction (e.g., a broken cable or connector on a base stationgenerating impedance mismatch/inter-modulations/distortions, or a heateror electronic device emitting harmful EMI). As such, implementationsdisclosed herein may be utilized to identify EMI emitter types and/oridentify wireless changes, failures, interferers, threats or anomalies(e.g., cyber-threats, attacks).

In yet another example, the classification information may indicate apresence of particular types of communication signals. For example, theclassification may involve a binary decision indicating whether aparticular type of RF signal is present, therefore enabling an RF signaldetection technique. In this instance one or more of the signal labelsmay indicate the presence of background noise, or the absence of a knownsignal type or label. In some examples information derived from the RFsignal may be used to perform analytics on emitters (e.g., passingpeople, vehicles, devices, etc.) which may include detection, on-times,usage level, location, or other statistical information about their use.

In a training scenario, the machine-learning network 102 takes an inputRF signal 104 and learns how to generate predicted RF signalclassification information 106 that corresponds to the signal 104.During training, various network features 108 of the machine-learningnetwork 102 may be updated to achieve a desired performance objective,such as weights of one or more network layers, parameters, orarchitecture choices for the machine-learning network 102.

In some implementations, training may involve comparing the predicted RFsignal classification information 106 with known or pre-labeledclassification information, to determine a classification error forinput signal 104. The machine-learning network 102 may be trained toachieve various types of objective functions, which may involve ameasure of classification error, a measure of computational complexity(e.g., as measured by the number of parameters, number ofmultiplies/adds, execution time, Kolmogorov complexity, etc.), orcombinations thereof. Further details of training are described below,for example with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5 .

Once trained, the machine-learning network 102 may be deployed invarious application scenarios to perform learned identification of RFsignals, using the identification techniques that were learned duringtraining. In some implementations, the machine-learning network 102 maybe further updated during deployment based on real-time performanceresults of identification. Further details of deployment are describedbelow, for example with reference to FIGS. 6 and 7 .

In some implementations, the input RF signal 104 may represent theresult of an analog RF waveform that was received by one or moreantennas over a medium, such as over the air. The RF signal 104 may beprocessed by the machine-learning network 102 in analog or digital form.For example, the RF signal 104 may represent a digitized representation,such as a raw sampled time series, of an RF waveform that was receivedand processed by a receiver before being input into the machine-learningnetwork 102. In some implementations, the RF signal 104 may be an analogwaveform, and the machine-learning network 102 may implement variousfilters, samplers, analog-to-digital (A/D) converters, or othercircuitry and modules for processing the RF signal 104. In somescenarios, the input RF signal 104 may be a composite signal thatincludes multiple RF signals, one or more of which may be distinguishedand identified by the machine-learning network 102.

In some implementations, the machine-learning network 102 may include atleast one artificial neural network that consists of one or moreconnected layers of parametric multiplications, divisions, additions,and non-linearities, or other operations (e.g., normalization). In suchscenarios, updating the machine-learning network 102, which may occurduring training or deployment, includes updating weights of the neuralnetwork layers, or updating connectivity in the neural network layers,or other modifications of the neural network architecture, so as tomodify a mapping of inputs to outputs.

The machine-learning network 102 may be configured to identify RFsignals using any suitable machine-learning technique. For example, themachine-learning network 102 may implement a mapping from RF signalinputs 104 into a lower-dimension space, from which the predicted RFsignal classification information 106 is generated. As an example, thelower-dimensional mappings may be utilize a set of basis functions andtransforming the input RF signal 104 into a lower-dimensional projectionof the signal 104 onto those basis functions. The predicted RF signalsclassification information 106 may then be generated based on analyzingthose projections onto the basis functions.

RF signals that are processed by system 100 may include any suitableradio-frequency signal, such as acoustic signals, optical signals, orother analog waveforms, typically of human-designed communicationssystem or radar/sonar system. In some instances, the signals may havebeen designed by automated processes (e.g., learned communications orradar systems). The spectrum of RF signals that are processed by system100 may be in a range of 1 kHz to 300 GHz. For example, such RF signalsinclude very low frequency (VLF) RF signals between 1 kHz to 30 kHz, lowfrequency (LF) RF signals between 30 kHz to 300 kHz, medium frequency(MF) RF signals between 300 kHz to 1 MHz, high frequency (HF) RF signalsbetween 1 MHz to 30 MHz, and higher-frequency RF signals up to 300 GHz.

The RF signals may themselves be information, such as measurements thatare output from sensors or probes, including medical devices andequipment monitoring devices. Alternatively, the RF signals may be fixedwaveforms that have been modulated to carry other information, such ascarrier waveforms modulated by a communication system to carry data. Inboth scenarios, implementations disclosed herein enable learningidentification of RF signals, and provide efficient classification,analysis, and high-level understanding of those signals.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a network structure 200 of an RF systemimplementing at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals. The network structure 200 includesmachine-learning network 202 that is implemented using an artificialneural network that consists of one or more layers. The output of eachnetwork layer is used as input to the next network layer. Each layer ofthe network generates an output from a received input in accordance withcurrent values of a respective set of parameters.

The machine-learning network 202 may include one or more such layersthat are shown. For example, in some implementations, themachine-learning network 202 may include a plurality of networks thatmay be collectively or iteratively trained. As such, the network input204 in FIG. 2 may be the original received RF signal (e.g., RF signal104 in FIG. 1 , above), or may be an output of one or more layers in themachine-learning network 202. Analogously, the network output 206 mayrepresent the final predicted classification information (e.g.,classification information 106 in FIG. 1 , above), or may be an inputinto one or more subsequent layers in the machine-learning network 202.

In general, the machine-learning network 202 may include one or morecollections of multiplications, divisions, and summations of inputs andintermediate values, optionally followed by non-linearities (such asrectified linear units, sigmoid function, or otherwise) or otheroperations (e.g. normalization), which may be arranged in a feed-forwardmanner, including optional bypass or residual connections or in a mannerwith feedback and in-layer connections (e.g., a recurrent orquasi-recurrent network). Parameters and weight values in the networkmay be used for a single multiplication, as in a fully connected neuralnetwork (DNN), or they may be “tied” or replicated across multiplelocations within the network to form one or more receptive fields, suchas in a convolutional neural network, a dilated convolutional neuralnetwork, a residual network unit, or similar. A collection of one ormore of these layers may constitute the machine-learning network 202.The specific structure for the networks may be explicitly specified atdesign time, or it may be selected from a plurality of possiblearchitecture candidates to ascertain the best performing candidate.

The machine-learning network 202 may implement dense network layersand/or convolutional network layers, and non-linear activations. In theexample of FIG. 2 , the machine-learning network 202 implementsconvolutional neural network (CNN) layers and dense neural network (DNN)layers with rectified linear-unit (ReLU) and SoftMAX activations Ingeneral, however, implementations are not limited to these specifictypes of layers, and other configurations of layers and non-linearitiesmay be used, such as sigmoid, tanh, and others. One common configurationmay include a sequence of convolutional layers, utilizing pooling orstriding, resulting in a set of feature maps which are combined using afully connected layer to produce classification information.

One or more layers of the machine-learning network 202 (e.g., dense,convolutional, or otherwise), may include a set of parameters, such asweights 208 for the network layers. The machine-learning network 202adapts these layers, including connectivity between layers and parametersuch as network layer weights, to learn techniques for generating anetwork output 206 in response to a network input 204.

The network weights 208 may be real or complex valued numbers such asfloating point values, fixed point numbers, or integer numbers which areused by multiplication or addition operations within the modelarchitecture of machine-learning network 202 to be combined with theinput RF signal (e.g., network input 204), or intermediate values withinthe model.

The convolutional layers in the machine-learning network 202 mayfacilitate time-shift invariance learning, and may reduce the number ofparameters used to classify the input RF signal (e.g., network input204). For example, by using convolutional layers with only one or twofilters, implementations disclosed herein may achieve a maximallymatched small set of time-basis filters. As such, convolutional layersmay be well suited for reducing parameter space and forming a compactfront-end for radio data. Learned weights can be extremely useful in theanalysis or reception of unknown or partially known signal types, forinstance filters can often learn the modulation basis functions or pulseshapes used within a transmission system very quickly which can be usedto aid the reception or analysis of an unknown system type.

In addition to the convolutional layers, dense layers with non-linearactivations may be implemented in between these convolutional layers toprovide an estimation of the logic for what the classification should befor those basis filters occurring at different times. For example,non-linearities or activation functions may be applied to anintermediate layer summation (t) and produce an intermediate layer orfinal layer output (s). Example include a sigmoid function given byS(t)=1/(1+e^(−t)); a rectifier (or rectified linear units, ReLU) givenby S(t)=max(0, t); a hyperbolic tangent (“tanh”) given byS(t)=(e^(t)−e^(−t))/(e^(t)+e^(−t)); a Softmax function given byS(t)=e^(jt)/Σ_(j)e^(jt); or another function providing a similarnon-linear effect.

In some implementations, the machine-learning network 202 may include atleast one regularization layer having at least one of weightregularization on convolutional network layer weights, activityregularization on dense network layer activations, or other stochasticimpairments on activations or weights, such as dropout or dropconnect.For example, regularization may be used to prevent over-fitting.Dropout, such as a penalty on the convolutional layer weights, may beutilized to encourage minimum energy bases, and a penalty on the firstdense layer activation may be utilized to encourage sparsity ofsolutions.

In training scenarios, various features of the machine-learning network202 may be updated to learn a classification technique. For example, ifan artificial neural network is implemented in the machine-learningnetwork 202, then the specific arrangement and composition of artificialneural network layers, types of layers, and parameterizations such asweights in the layers may be updated based on the specific dataset ortraining process. As such, the machine-learning network 202 may betrained based on different configurations of input values, network layerweights, multiplications of weights with inputs, summations of thesescaled weights, and the generation of output activations from thesesummations. In the case of dense network layers, every input to outputcombination may have a unique weight scaling, while in the case ofconvolutional or other types of network layers, weights may be re-usedat different shifts or patterns across many input activations.

Various different configurations of CNN, DNN, activation, or somecombination of these layers which may be sequential, parallel, orconnected with various bypass or cross connections and other networklayer types may be used in the machine-learning network 202 to achieve adesired objective function. Any suitable search process, such as greedysearch, guided search, or evolution, may be used to assist inclassification model selection during training scenarios.

A general design objective for the machine-learning network 202 may beto obtain a minimum complexity network, while still achieving desiredclassification performance.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a network structure 300 of an RF systemimplementing at least one machine-learning network to learn and mergeraw time-series RF signal information with features that are extractedfrom the RF signal to perform learned identification RF signals. Thenetwork structure 300 includes a machine-learning network 302implementing an artificial neural network including one or more layersto learn RF signal classification information (e.g., network output 306)from an input RF signal (e.g., network input 304), utilizing one or morenetwork layer weights 308, as in the example described in FIG. 2 ,above.

Compared to the example of FIG. 2 , however, the example of FIG. 3additionally utilizes a feature extractor 310 that leverages priorknowledge about the RF signal (e.g., network input 304). The featureextractor 310 may utilize, for example, features and/or transforms thatare obtained from expert hand crafted techniques or automatedfeature-extracting techniques. Therefore, the structure 300 in FIG. 3enables using both machine-learned information and extracted featuresfrom RF signals to generate the network output 306 (which may be the RFsignal classification information or an input to another one or morelayers, as discussed in regards to FIG. 2 , above).

The features extracted by feature extractor 310 may, in someimplementations, thus be included as additional inputs to themachine-learning network 302. In some scenarios, this may provide a moreaccurate classification as compared to using machine learning alone. Forexample, if an artificial neural network is implemented in themachine-learning network 302, then the specific arrangement andcomposition of artificial neural network layers, types of layers, andparameterizations such as weights in the layers may be updated based onthe specific dataset, extracted features or labels, or training process.One example where this may improve performance is when a smaller amountof training data is available, and a small machine learning network isused (e.g., to avoid over-fitting or poor generalization of thenetwork).

In some implementations, the feature extractor 310 may also be trained,as with the machine-learning network 302, based on results ofclassification performance.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 400 of training atleast one machine-learning network to perform learned identification ofRF signals. This type of training may be utilized to train amachine-learning network (e.g., machine learning network 102 in FIG. 1 ,above) to classify RF signals. The method 400 may be performed by one ormore processors, such as one or more CPUs, GPUs, DSPs, FPGAs, ASICs,TPUs, neuromorphic chips, or vector accelerators that executeinstructions encoded on a computer storage medium.

The example training method 400 includes determining an RF signal thatis configured to be transmitted through an RF band of a communicationmedium (402). The RF signal (e.g., RF signal 104 in FIG. 1 , above) maybe generated from a training dataset of sample RF signals, and may be indigital or analog form. In some implementations, the RF signals in thetraining dataset may have been obtained from an RF waveform that wasreceived by one or more antennas, or may have been obtained by othertechniques, such as simulation, as further discussed in regards to FIG.5 , below.

The method 400 further includes determining first classificationinformation that is associated with the RF signal (404). The firstclassification information may be, for example, one or more labels thatare known to be associated with the RF signal, and that are used asreference points for evaluating the performance of the machine-learningnetwork during training. The first classification information mayinclude a representation of at least one of a characteristic of the RFsignal or a characteristic of an environment in which the RF signal iscommunicated. As examples, the first classification may be pre-storedlabel information (e.g., stored label information 526 in FIG. 5 ,below), and/or may include human labeling and/or machine labeling (e.g.,512 and/or 514 in FIG. 5 , below).

The method 400 further includes using at least one machine-learningnetwork to process the RF signal and generate second classificationinformation, which is a prediction of the first classificationinformation (406). In some implementations, the machine-learning network(e.g., machine learning network 102 in FIG. 1 , above) is an artificialneural network that may utilize any suitable mapping from input RFsignals (e.g., RF signal 104 in FIG. 1 , above) to predicted secondclassification information (e.g., predicted classification information106 in FIG. 1 , above). The second classification information mayinclude a representation of at least one of a characteristic of the RFsignal or a characteristic of an environment in which the RF signal iscommunicated. Details of this classification process are discussedfurther in regards to FIG. 5 , below.

The method 400 further includes computing a measure of distance between(i) the second classification information that was generated by themachine-learning network, and (ii) the first classification informationthat was associated with the RF signal (408). This measure of distancemay be implemented as a loss function (e.g., loss function 510 in FIG. 5, below) and represents a difference or error between the secondclassification information and the first classification information. Asexamples, the measure of distance may include cross-entropy, meansquared error, or other geometric distance metric (e.g., MSE, MAE, KLdivergence), or may combine several geometric, entropy-based and/orother classes of distance metrics into an aggregate expression fordistance or loss, as discussed further in regards to FIG. 5 , below. Insome instances, for example where cross-entropy and a SoftMax orhierarchical SoftMax output activation are used during training, thenetwork may output pseudo-probabilities of the presence of each class,in cases such as these the pseudo-probabilities, or ratios betweenpseudo-probabilities may be used to form a likelihood or otherconfidence metric.

The method 400 further includes updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the measure of distance between thesecond classification information and the first classificationinformation (410). This updating may generally include updating anysuitable machine-learning network feature, such as network weights,architecture choice, machine-learning model, or other parameter orconnectivity design, as further discussed in regards to FIG. 5 , below.

FIG. 5 illustrates an example system 500 of a training an RF system thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to learn how toidentify RF signals. The system 500 includes a machine-learning network502 that is trained to learn how to classify input RF signals 504 intopredicted RF signal classification information 506.

During training, the machine-learning network 502 takes an RF signal 504as input and generates predicted RF signal classification information506, subject to constraints or other objectives. In general, themachine-learning network 502 may be configured to utilize any suitablemapping from the input RF signal 504 to generate the output predicted RFsignal classification information 506, examples of which are describedfurther below. For example, in some implementations, themachine-learning network 502 may convert the RF signal 504 as rawtime-domain samples or features into information (such as one or morelikelihoods or probabilities) enabling the prediction of RF signalclassification (such as class labels).

The system 500 then compares the resulting predicted RF signalclassification information 506 with known classification information508, to compute a loss function 510 between the predicted and knownclassifications. The known classification information 508 may beobtained by various techniques, such as human labeling 512 and/ormachine labeling 514 of the RF signal 504. Alternatively oradditionally, the known classification information 508 may includestored label information 526 that is associated with the RF signal 504,which is discussed further below.

In general, classification information, such as the predictedclassification information 506 and the known classification information508, may represent various features related to an RF signal. Forexample, classification information may represent a characteristic ofthe RF signal 504 and/or a characteristic of an environment in which theRF signal 504 is communicated. The classification information may, insome implementations, include human-readable information, such ashuman-readable labels.

As examples, the classification information may indicate a modulationtype of RF signals (e.g. QPSK, BPSK, OOK, FSK, GMSK, OFDM, etc.); a typeof protocol or standard that is carried on or that is utilized totransmit RF signals (e.g., GSM, LTE, Wi-Fi 802.11g, LTE-5 MHz-TDD, HSPA,P25, etc.); a specific radio device utilized to transmit or receive RFsignals, a tower or user associated with RF signals. As another example,the classification information may indicate a type of traffic,behaviors, or contents being carried by the RF signal, such as normalusage on a wireless channel, or nefarious attacks on the wirelesschannel (e.g., flooding attacks).

As further examples, the classification information may indicate a typeof RF emission or a type of RF emission pattern (e.g., a particularsequence of data bits occurring, which may indicate electromagneticinterference (EMI), malicious interference (e.g., snooping), or a noisesource (e.g., communication channel noise or hardware noise). The typeof RF emission or RF emission pattern may be utilized to determinespecific events of interest, such as equipment malfunction (e.g., abroken cable on a base station generating impedancemismatch/inter-modulations, or a heater or electronic device emittingharmful EMI). As such, implementations disclosed herein may be utilizedto identify EMI emitter types and/or identify wireless threats oranomalies (e.g. cyber-threats, attacks).

In yet another example, the classification information may indicate apresence of particular types of communication signals. For example, theclassification may involve a binary decision indicating whether aparticular type of RF signal is present, therefore enabling an RF signaldetection technique.

The loss function 510 may be any suitable measure of distance betweenthe two classifications. For example, the loss function 510 may indicatea cross-entropy, mean squared error, or other geometric distance metric(e.g., MSE, MAE, KL divergence) between the predicted classificationinformation 506 and the known classification information 508. In someimplementations, the loss function 510 may combine several geometricand/or entropy-based distance metrics into an aggregate expression fordistance.

The update process 516 may utilize the computed loss function 510 toupdate the machine-learning network 502. In general, the update process516 may perform updates based on the loss function 510, as well as otherperformance metrics, such as network complexity of the machine-learningnetwork 502, or computational power or throughput. Other performancemetrics may include a computational throughput or delay (e.g., timeduration or operation count) achieved by the at least onemachine-learning network in classifying RF signals, a computationaldwell time associated with the at least one machine-learning network inclassifying RF signals, or a computational duty cycle associated withthe at least one machine-learning network in classifying RF signals. Insome implementations, the update process 516 may additionally oralternatively include one or more hard constraints on such metrics.

The update process 516 may utilize various techniques to determine asuitable update of the machine-learning network 502, such as anoptimization method including evolution, gradient descent, stochasticgradient descent, or other solution techniques. In some implementations,the update process 516 may include user preferences or applicationspecifications.

As an example, the update process 516 may seek to optimize (or nearlyoptimize) an objective function that combines one or more performancemetrics, such as classification error or complexity, discussed above. Insome implementations, the objective function may be a weightedcombination of such metrics.

The update process 516 may calculate a rate of change of the objectivefunction relative to variations in the machine-learning network 502, forexample by calculating or approximating a gradient of the objectivefunction. Such variations may include, for example, variations innetwork layer weights or other network parameters, as discussed furtherbelow. The variation may be determined based on a desired change in theobjective function, for example, using Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD)style optimizers, such as Adam, AdaGrad, Nesterov SGD, or others. Insome implementations, these variations may be determined using otherscalable methods for direct search, such as evolutionary algorithms orparticle swarm optimizations.

Once the variations have been determined, the update process 516 thenapplies those variations to update the machine-learning network 502. Forexample, the update process 516 may update at least one network weightin one or more layers of the machine-learning network 502. In general,updating the machine-learning network 502 is not limited to updatingnetwork weights, and other types of updates may be implemented, such aslayer parameters, additions, multiplications, applications of activationfunctions, and other tunable algorithm specific features of themachine-learning network 502. In some implementations, updating themachine-learning network 502 may include selecting a machine-learningmodel from among a plurality of models. In such implementations,selecting machine-learning models may include selecting a specificnetwork architecture, such as choice of layers, layer-hyperparameters,or other network features.

The input RF signal 504 may be generated from a set of example RFsignals in a training dataset 518. The training dataset 518 may begenerated by various techniques. For example, the training dataset 518may be generated from a set of analog RF waveforms 520 that have beenprocessed by an RF receiver 522. The RF receiver 522 may performsampling, filtering, and/or analog to digital (A/D) conversion of theanalog RF waveforms 520, to form a set of sampled time-series radiosignal examples in the dataset 518. Alternatively, or additionally, thetraining dataset 518 may be generated through simulation, such assoftware simulation of RF signals 524. In general, the training dataset518 consists of a large number of recordings or simulations of RF signalexamples, in time or in another representation.

In some implementations, one or more RF signals from the trainingdataset 518 may be augmented to include additional effects, for exampleto model real-world phenomena or variations in signaling (e.g., hardwareimperfections, wireless propagation, or other variations). For example,the particular RF signal 504 may be stored and labeled (e.g., withstored label information 526) in the training dataset 518. Duringtraining, when the RF signal 504 is processed by the machine-learningnetwork 502, one or more additional effects may be introduced in the RFsignal 504 to broaden the types or number of examples of signals thatare modelled by the RF signal 504. For example, the system may introducerandom phase/frequency offsets, time offsets, time dilations, delayspreads, fading effects, distortion effects, interference effects,spatial propagation effects, dispersion effects, differing contents,non-linear effects, noise, and/or other signal effects in the RF signal.Such effects may be implemented, for example, as regularization layersin the machine-learning network 502 or as other augmentation effectswhile training or while pre-processing the input data prior to training.As such, the training may be made more robust (e.g., to generalize well)to identify not only the particular RF signal 504, but also to identifya range of RF signals that correspond to the RF signal 504 having beenaffected or perturbed by real-world variability (e.g., through aplurality of different propagation modes or differing channel stateinformation).

The training dataset 518 may include a same type or different types ofexample RF signals. Depending on the composition of RF signals in thetraining dataset 518, the machine-learning network 502 may learn toidentify a certain type of radio signal or a wide range of differenttypes of radio signals. For example, the training dataset 518 may belimited to a particular class of RF signals. In such scenarios, themachine-learning network 502 will be trained to learn predicted RFsignal classification information 506 that are tuned to that particularclass of RF signals. By training on different classes of RF signals, themachine-learning network 502 may learn to classify different classes ofRF signals.

In some implementations, the machine-learning network 502 may determinean appropriate time-scale over which to process RF signals in thetraining dataset 518. For example, the machine-learning network 502 mayinitially process the RF signal over a first time scale, and may thensubsequently update the processing to a second time scale based onclassification performance. By updating the duration over whichidentification is performed, the machine-learning system 502 is able tolearn an appropriate time scale to identify the RF signal moreaccurately, thus taking into account time-variant characteristics of RFsignals.

As an example, if classification error (e.g., the measure of distancebetween predicted and known classification information) does not satisfythreshold criteria, then the machine-learning network 502 may lengthenthe time scale over which identification is performed, or combine theresults of multiple classifications to obtain better accuracy over moresamples of the input RF signal. As another example, if computationalcomplexity or power does not satisfy threshold criteria, then themachine-learning network 502 may shorten the time scale over whichidentification is performed, to reduce computational burden.

In some implementations, the example RF signals in the training dataset518 may be associated with stored label information 526. The storedlabel information 526 may include labels that are stored for one or moreRF signals in the training dataset 518. In general, the stored labelinformation 526 may include labels that represent various types ofinformation regarding the RF signals in the training dataset 518, asdiscussed regarding classification information, above

In some implementations, the system 500 may implement a featureextraction process 528 that extracts additional statistics or featuresfrom the input RF signal 504. In some implementations, the featureextraction process 528 may leverage expert information about thestructure of a modulation of the RF signal 504. For example, the featureextraction process 528 may leverage parameters such ashigher-order-moments, or other integrated statistics about the input RFsignal 504, or in other instances it may perform steps such assynchronization or multi-carrier extraction prior to classification.Such features may then be utilized with the machine-learning network 502to form an expert-augmented machine-learning model which can be trained,as previously described. In some implementations, the feature extractor310 may also be trained based on classification performance, such asbased on the measure of distance between the predicted classification506 and known classification 508.

In some implementations, the machine-learning network 502 may processthe input RF signal 504 using a set of basis functions. For example, themachine-learning network 502 may process the input RF signal 504 andcompute projections onto the basis functions to determine basiscoefficients that represent the input RF signal 504. Using these basiscoefficients, or using further transformations thereof, themachine-learning network 502 may determine appropriate RF signalclassification information 506, for example using clustering algorithmsor other suitable classification algorithms.

The basis functions may be any suitable set of orthogonal ornon-orthogonal set of basis functions that can represent the RF signal504. For example, the basis functions may be In-Phase andQuadrature-Phase (I/Q) signals, Fourier basis functions, polynomialbasis functions, Gaussian basis functions, exponential basis functions,wavelet basis functions, or combinations of these and/or other suitableset of basis functions that can be utilized represent RF signals. Thebasis functions may have different phase, amplitude, and/or frequencycomponents.

The machine-learning network may then project the input RF signal 504onto the set of basis signals to determine basis coefficients. As aspecific example, if the basis functions are Fourier basis functions,then the machine-learning network 502 may implement a bank of filterseach tuned to a particular frequency, and may process the RF signal 504by correlating the RF signal 504 with the filters to generate a set ofbasis coefficients. In some implementations, the basis functions may beparameterized and the training may involve optimizing over parameters ofthe basis functions.

The training of the machine-learning network 502 may begin with anysuitable set of initial conditions. For example, the training may beginwith a random set of basis functions subject to certain conditions.Alternatively, the training may begin with a fixed set of basisfunctions, such as commonly used RF communication basis functionsincluding Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) or Gaussian BinaryFrequency Shift Keying (GFSK), orthogonal frequency division multipleaccess (OFDM), or other fixed set of basis functions. In otherinstances, the training may begin with a set of initial conditions whichhas been learned in the training process for another set of data (e.g.,similar signals, or different set of examples of the same signals).

During training, the machine-learning network 502 may attempt to learnimproved basis functions, according to the results of the predicted RFclassification information 506. In such scenarios, training themachine-learning network 502 may involve optimizing over a set of basisfunctions or over different sets of basis functions, for example usinggreedy search or other optimization-type algorithm. However,implementations are not limited to using basis functions, and themachine-learning network 502 may perform any suitable processing of theinput RF signal 504 to predict the RF signal classification information506.

Upon achieving a desired objective during training, a particular choiceof model architecture, network weights, and training parameters areselected and stored to represent the model that will be implemented in adeployed system.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 600 of deploying anRF system implementing at least one machine-learning network that hasbeen trained to perform learned identification of RF signals. Suchdeployment may utilize at least one machine-learning network (e.g.,machine-learning network 502 in FIG. 5 , above) that has been previouslytrained, for example by using a training technique as shown in FIG. 4 ,above, or similar training techniques. In some implementations, themachine-learning network may be an artificial neural network, asdiscussed above, that has been trained to learn a set of networkfeatures (e.g., network layer weights, parameters, and/or networkarchitectures) to achieve a performance-related objective.

The method 600 includes determining at least one machine-learningnetwork has been trained to classify RF signals configured to betransmitted through an RF band of a communication medium (602). Forexample, at least one trained machine-learning network may have beenpreviously trained using a training technique as shown in FIG. 4 ,above, or similar training techniques.

The method 600 further includes setting at least one parameter of an RFreceiver based on the at least one trained machine-learning network orbased on updates to the machine-learning network during deployment(604). The RF receiver and its parameter settings may be implemented,for example, similar to RF receiver 716 in FIG. 7 , below.

The method 600 further includes using the RF receiver to receive ananalog RF waveform from an RF spectrum of the communication medium, andto process the analog RF waveform to generate a discrete-timerepresentation of the analog RF waveform as a received RF signal (606).For example, the RF receiver may include one or more antennas to receivean analog RF waveform over the air (or other medium), and may processthe analog RF waveform to generate an RF signal (e.g., RF signal 504 inFIG. 5 , above) that is to be classified.

The method 600 further includes using the at least one trainedmachine-learning network to process the received RF signal and generatepredicted RF signal classification information (608). The predicted RFsignal classification information (e.g., predicted classificationinformation 106 in FIG. 1 or 506 in FIG. 5 , above) may include arepresentation of at least one of a characteristic of the received RFsignal or a characteristic of an environment in which the received RFsignal was communicated.

The RF signal classification information may be stored in memory, ortransmitted to another automated system over some communications bus. Insome implementations, the RF signal classification information may bedisplayed to a user directly or as an annotation on top of a displayedvisualization of the received RF signal (e.g., as a spectrogram or powerspectral density).

FIG. 7 illustrates an example system 700 of deploying an RF systemincluding at least one machine-learning network that has been trained toperform learned identification of RF signals. The system 700 deployslearned radio signal identification based on pre-trained networkfeatures, allowing a model trained as in FIG. 5 , above, to be leveragedfor identification in an efficient manner.

System 700 includes a machine-learning network 702 that receives inputRF signals 704 and generates predicted RF signal classificationinformation 706. The system 700 further predicts the most likely type(s)of radio signals 708 that correspond to the input RF signal 704, basedon the generated signal classification information 706. However,implementations are not limited to predicting the type(s) of radiosignals, and in general may utilize the generated signal classificationinformation 706 for any suitable classification purpose, as discussed inregards to FIG. 1 .

In this example system 700, a radio waveform 714 is received andprocessed by a radio receiver 716, which may perform tuning andfiltering to an appropriate radio band. The RF processed waveform may beconverted to digital representation, for example by an analog to digitalconverter in the receiver 716, to generate an RF signal 704 as adiscrete-time series of sampled values.

The machine-learning network 702 then utilizes a set of networkparameters 710, such as network weights, biases, architecture choices,etc., which have been learned through training or architecture search,as in FIG. 5 , above, to process the RF signal 704. For example, themachine-learning network 702 may implement a neural networkclassification model that has previously been trained, e.g., asdescribed with respect to FIG. 5 , by loading previously learned andstored model architecture choices, network weights and parameters 710from training. In some implementations, the machine-learning network 702may be further trained or refined during deployment, for example byutilizing feedback and/or metrics to determine performance of theclassification.

In some implementations, the system 700 further includes systemcontroller 718 for control of radio tuning and attention of the RFreceiver 716. The system controller 718 may be is used to isolate andextract signals from a large collection of various types of signalspresent within the radio spectrum, for example, by controlling tuning,filtering, or channelization parameters in the RF receiver 716. Thecontroller 718 may set at least one of a tuning parameter, a filteringparameter, a scheduling of operations, or a channelization parameter ofthe RF receiver 716 according to the trained at least onemachine-learning network. In some implementations, the controller 718may control the RF receiver 716 to effect scheduling and execution ofchanges in the model architecture, channelization of the RF receiver andinput signals, target class labels, or specific applicationconfiguration or task based on the outcome of the classificationinformation. In general, the controller 718 may be configured to controlother aspects of the system 700 as the machine-learning network istrained. For example, the controller 718 may control the scheduling ofone or more software operations that are executed by the system 700.

In some implementations, the system 700 may also include a featureextractor 712 to provide additional inputs into the machine-learningnetwork 702, e.g., as discussed in regards to FIG. 5 , above. Thefeatures that are extracted by feature extractor 712 may be used inconjunction with the RF signal 704 itself when deploying a productionclassification system for a given training scenario and dataset.

As such, the system 700 described above may be used to provide bestestimates of over-the-air RF signals 704 to determine the type of signalthat is present at the network output values 706. The network outputvalues 706 can be used to compute which are the most likely signals 708that are probabilistically likely to correspond to the input signal 704,and the resulting information may be transmitted to a user or a controlsystem.

In general, the classification information 706 may be leveraged byvarious types of systems or processes to perform analysis of RF signals.For example, a set of automated signal reasoning systems may process theclassification information 706 to analyze the RF input signals 704 todetermine a similarity or difference between different RF signals, orattempt to label the RF signals with additional information. In someimplementations, the automated reasoning system may determine a changeof one or more RF signals 704 over time, predict future values of the RFsignal 704, predict the underlying state of a communications systemthrough which the RF signal 704 was received, or determine a differencebetween several known types or modes of underlying RF signals. In someimplementations, the automated reasoning system may implement trainingmappings from the classification information 706 to alternate sequencesof representations, such as words, bits, other sparse representations.

In some implementations, a user interface may be implemented to enableuser interaction with the classification information 706. The userinterface may generate output results that help explain to a user whattypes of RF signals are present, what actions may be occurring in theradio or physical environments, what spectrum resources are used orfree, or other types of high-level human-interpretable information aboutthe environment determined from a radio antenna that resulted in theoriginal RF signal 704.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 800 of using atleast one machine-learning network to process an RF signal and generatepredicted signal RF signal classification information by determining aplurality of basis signals. The method 800 may be implemented duringtraining and/or deployment, for example, in step 406 of FIG. 4 and/or instep 608 of FIG. 6 . Further details of using basis signals werediscussed in regards to FIG. 5 , above.

In this example, the method 800 includes determining a plurality ofbasis signals that can be used to represent the received RF signal(802). As discussed in regards to FIG. 5 , above, the basis functionsmay be any suitable set of orthogonal or non-orthogonal set of basisfunctions, such as In-Phase and Quadrature-Phase (I/Q) signals, Fourierbasis functions, polynomial basis functions, Gaussian basis functions,exponential basis functions, wavelet basis functions, or combinations ofthese and/or other suitable set of basis functions.

The method 800 further includes processing the received RF signal usingthe plurality of basis signals to generate a plurality of basiscoefficients for the received RF signal (804). For example, as discussedin regards to FIG. 5 , above, the input RF signal may be projected ontothe plurality of basis signals to determine the basis coefficients. As aspecific example, if the basis signals are Fourier basis functions, thena bank of filters may be implemented, each filter tuned to a particularfrequency to process the input RF signal, to generate a correspondingplurality of basis coefficients.

The method 800 further includes performing classification of the RFsignal based on the plurality of basis coefficients (806). Theclassification may directly utilize the basis coefficients, or mayutilize further transformations of the basis coefficients. For example,the classification may involve using clustering algorithms or othersuitable classification algorithms that determine an appropriateclassification of the RF signal based on the basis coefficients.

The method 800 further includes outputting a result of theclassification as the predicted RF signal classification information(808). For example, as discussed in regards to FIGS. 1 and 5 , above,the classification information may include one or more labels, and mayindicate deterministic or statistical classification information (e.g.,likelihood probabilities).

FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating an example of a computing system thatmay be used to implement one or more components of an RF system thatimplements at least one machine-learning network to perform learnedidentification of RF signals.

The example system of FIG. 9 shows a computing device 900 and a mobilecomputing device 950 that can be used to implement the techniquesdescribed herein. For example, one or more parts of an encodermachine-learning network system or a decoder machine-learning networksystem could be an example of the system 900 described here, such as acomputer system implemented in any of the machine-learning networks,devices that access information from the machine-learning networks, or aserver that accesses or stores information regarding the RF signalidentification techniques performed by the machine-learning networks.

The computing device 900 is intended to represent various forms ofdigital computers, such as laptops, desktops, workstations, personaldigital assistants, servers, blade servers, mainframes, and otherappropriate computers. The mobile computing device 950 is intended torepresent various forms of mobile devices, such as personal digitalassistants, cellular telephones, smart-phones, and other similarcomputing devices. The components shown here, their connections andrelationships, and their functions, are meant to be examples only, andare not meant to be limiting.

The computing device 900 includes a processor 902, a memory 904, astorage device 906, a high-speed interface 908 connecting to the memory904 and multiple high-speed expansion ports 910, and a low-speedinterface 912 connecting to a low-speed expansion port 914 and thestorage device 906. Each of the processor 902, the memory 904, thestorage device 906, the high-speed interface 908, the high-speedexpansion ports 910, and the low-speed interface 912, are interconnectedusing various busses, and may be mounted on a common motherboard or inother manners as appropriate. The processor 902 can process instructionsfor execution within the computing device 900, including instructionsstored in the memory 904 or on the storage device 906 to displaygraphical information for a GUI on an external input/output device, suchas a display 916 coupled to the high-speed interface 908. In otherimplementations, multiple processors and/or multiple buses may be used,as appropriate, along with multiple memories and types of memory. Inaddition, multiple computing devices may be connected, with each deviceproviding portions of the operations (e.g., as a server bank, a group ofblade servers, or a multi-processor system). In some implementations,the processor 902 is a single-threaded processor. In someimplementations, the processor 902 is a multi-threaded processor. Insome implementations, the processor 902 is a quantum computer.

The memory 904 stores information within the computing device 900. Insome implementations, the memory 904 is a volatile memory unit or units.In some implementations, the memory 904 is a non-volatile memory unit orunits. The memory 904 may also be another form of computer-readablemedium, such as a magnetic or optical disk.

The storage device 906 is capable of providing mass storage for thecomputing device 900. In some implementations, the storage device 906may be or may include a computer-readable medium, such as a floppy diskdevice, a hard disk device, an optical disk device, or a tape device, aflash memory or other similar solid-state memory device, or an array ofdevices, including devices in a storage area network or otherconfigurations. Instructions can be stored in an information carrier.The instructions, when executed by one or more processing devices (forexample, processor 902), perform one or more methods, such as thosedescribed above. The instructions can also be stored by one or morestorage devices such as computer- or machine-readable mediums (forexample, the memory 904, the storage device 906, or memory on theprocessor 902).

The high-speed interface 908 manages bandwidth-intensive operations forthe computing device 900, while the low-speed interface 912 manageslower bandwidth-intensive operations. Such allocation of functions is anexample only. In some implementations, the high-speed interface 908 iscoupled to the memory 904, the display 916 (e.g., through a graphicsprocessor or accelerator), and to the high-speed expansion ports 910,which may accept various expansion cards (not shown). In theimplementation, the low-speed interface 912 is coupled to the storagedevice 906 and the low-speed expansion port 914. The low-speed expansionport 914, which may include various communication ports (e.g., USB,Bluetooth, Ethernet, wireless Ethernet) may be coupled to one or moreinput/output devices, such as a keyboard, a pointing device, a scanner,or a networking device such as a switch or router, e.g., through anetwork adapter.

The computing device 900 may be implemented in a number of differentforms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may be implemented as astandard server 920, or multiple times in a group of such servers. Inaddition, it may be implemented in a personal computer such as a laptopcomputer 922. It may also be implemented as part of a rack server system924. Alternatively, components from the computing device 900 may becombined with other components in a mobile device (not shown), such as amobile computing device 950. Each of such devices may include one ormore of the computing device 900 and the mobile computing device 950,and an entire system may be made up of multiple computing devicescommunicating with each other.

The mobile computing device 950 includes a processor 952, a memory 964,an input/output device such as a display 954, a communication interface966, and a transceiver 968, among other components. The mobile computingdevice 950 may also be provided with a storage device, such as amicro-drive or other device, to provide additional storage. Each of theprocessor 952, the memory 964, the display 954, the communicationinterface 966, and the transceiver 968, are interconnected using variousbuses, and several of the components may be mounted on a commonmotherboard or in other manners as appropriate.

The processor 952 can execute instructions within the mobile computingdevice 950, including instructions stored in the memory 964. Theprocessor 952 may be implemented as a chipset of chips that includeseparate and multiple analog and digital processors. The processor 952may provide, for example, for coordination of the other components ofthe mobile computing device 950, such as control of user interfaces,applications run by the mobile computing device 950, and wirelesscommunication by the mobile computing device 950.

The processor 952 may communicate with a user through a controlinterface 958 and a display interface 956 coupled to the display 954.The display 954 may be, for example, a TFT (Thin-Film-Transistor LiquidCrystal Display) display or an OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)display, or other appropriate display technology. The display interface956 may comprise appropriate circuitry for driving the display 954 topresent graphical and other information to a user. The control interface958 may receive commands from a user and convert them for submission tothe processor 952. In addition, an external interface 962 may providecommunication with the processor 952, so as to enable near areacommunication of the mobile computing device 950 with other devices. Theexternal interface 962 may provide, for example, for wired communicationin some implementations, or for wireless communication in otherimplementations, and multiple interfaces may also be used.

The memory 964 stores information within the mobile computing device950. The memory 964 can be implemented as one or more of acomputer-readable medium or media, a volatile memory unit or units, or anon-volatile memory unit or units. An expansion memory 974 may also beprovided and connected to the mobile computing device 950 through anexpansion interface 972, which may include, for example, a SIMM (SingleIn Line Memory Module) card interface. The expansion memory 974 mayprovide extra storage space for the mobile computing device 950, or mayalso store applications or other information for the mobile computingdevice 950. Specifically, the expansion memory 974 may includeinstructions to carry out or supplement the processes described above,and may include secure information also. Thus, for example, theexpansion memory 974 may be provide as a security module for the mobilecomputing device 950, and may be programmed with instructions thatpermit secure use of the mobile computing device 950. In addition,secure applications may be provided via the SIMM cards, along withadditional information, such as placing identifying information on theSIMM card in a non-hackable manner.

The memory may include, for example, flash memory and/or NVRAM memory(non-volatile random access memory), as discussed below. In someimplementations, instructions are stored in an information carrier suchthat the instructions, when executed by one or more processing devices(for example, processor 952), perform one or more methods, such as thosedescribed above. The instructions can also be stored by one or morestorage devices, such as one or more computer- or machine-readablemediums (for example, the memory 964, the expansion memory 974, ormemory on the processor 952). In some implementations, the instructionscan be received in a propagated signal, for example, over thetransceiver 968 or the external interface 962.

The mobile computing device 950 may communicate wirelessly through thecommunication interface 966, which may include digital signal processingcircuitry. The communication interface 966 may provide forcommunications under various modes or protocols, such as GSM voice calls(Global System for Mobile communications), SMS (Short Message Service),EMS (Enhanced Messaging Service), or MIMS messaging (MultimediaMessaging Service), CDMA (code division multiple access), TDMA (timedivision multiple access), PDC (Personal Digital Cellular), WCDMA(Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), CDMA2000, or GPRS (GeneralPacket Radio Service), among others. Such communication may occur, forexample, through the transceiver 968 using a radio frequency. Inaddition, short-range communication may occur, such as using aBluetooth, Wi-Fi, or other such transceiver (not shown). In addition, aGPS (Global Positioning System) receiver module 970 may provideadditional navigation- and location-related wireless data to the mobilecomputing device 950, which may be used as appropriate by applicationsrunning on the mobile computing device 950.

The mobile computing device 950 may also communicate audibly using anaudio codec 960, which may receive spoken information from a user andconvert it to usable digital information. The audio codec 960 maylikewise generate audible sound for a user, such as through a speaker,e.g., in a handset of the mobile computing device 950. Such sound mayinclude sound from voice telephone calls, may include recorded sound(e.g., voice messages, music files, etc.) and may also include soundgenerated by applications operating on the mobile computing device 950.

The mobile computing device 950 may be implemented in a number ofdifferent forms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may beimplemented as a cellular telephone 980. It may also be implemented aspart of a smart-phone 982, personal digital assistant, or other similarmobile device.

The term “system” as used in this disclosure may encompass allapparatus, devices, and machines for processing data, including by wayof example a programmable processor, a computer, or multiple processorsor computers. A processing system can include, in addition to hardware,code that creates an execution environment for the computer program inquestion, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocolstack, a database management system, an operating system, or acombination of one or more of them.

A computer program (also known as a program, software, softwareapplication, script, executable logic, or code) can be written in anyform of programming language, including compiled or interpretedlanguages, or declarative or procedural languages, and it can bedeployed in any form, including as a standalone program or as a module,component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computingenvironment. A computer program does not necessarily correspond to afile in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a filethat holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in amarkup language document), in a single file dedicated to the program inquestion, or in multiple coordinated files (e.g., files that store oneor more modules, sub programs, or portions of code). A computer programcan be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computersthat are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites andinterconnected by a communication network.

Computer readable media suitable for storing computer programinstructions and data include all forms of non-volatile or volatilememory, media and memory devices, including by way of examplesemiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memorydevices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks ormagnetic tapes; magneto optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. Theprocessor and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in,special purpose logic circuitry. Sometimes a server is a general-purposecomputer, and sometimes it is a custom-tailored special purposeelectronic device, and sometimes it is a combination of these things.

Implementations can include a back end component, e.g., a data server,or a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or a front endcomponent, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface ora Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementationof the subject matter described is this specification, or anycombination of one or more such back end, middleware, or front endcomponents. The components of the system can be interconnected by anyform or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communicationnetwork. Examples of communication networks include a local area network(“LAN”) and a wide area network (“WAN”), e.g., the Internet.

The features described can be implemented in digital electroniccircuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or incombinations of them. The apparatus can be implemented in a computerprogram product tangibly embodied in an information carrier, e.g., in amachine-readable storage device, for execution by a programmableprocessor; and method steps can be performed by a programmable processorexecuting a program of instructions to perform functions of thedescribed implementations by operating on input data and generatingoutput. The described features can be implemented advantageously in oneor more computer programs that are executable on a programmable systemincluding at least one programmable processor coupled to receive dataand instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a datastorage system, at least one input device, and at least one outputdevice. A computer program is a set of instructions that can be used,directly or indirectly, in a computer to perform a certain activity orbring about a certain result. A computer program can be written in anyform of programming language, including compiled or interpretedlanguages, and it can be deployed in any form, including as astand-alone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unitsuitable for use in a computing environment.

While this disclosure contains many specific implementation details,these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of anyinvention or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions offeatures that may be specific to particular implementations ofparticular inventions. Certain features that are described in thisdisclosure in the context of separate implementations can also beimplemented in combination in a single implementation. Conversely,various features that are described in the context of a singleimplementation can also be implemented in multiple implementationsseparately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, althoughfeatures may be described above as acting in certain combinations andeven initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimedcombination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and theclaimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation ofa subcombination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particularorder, this should not be understood as requiring that such operationsbe performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, orthat all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirableresults. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processingmay be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system modulesand components in the implementations described above should not beunderstood as requiring such separation in all implementations, and itshould be understood that the described program components and systemscan generally be integrated together in a single software product orpackaged into multiple software products.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method, performed by at least one processor, toprocess radio frequency (RF) signals, the method comprising: determininga first RF signal; determining first classification informationassociated with the first RF signal, the first classificationinformation comprising an indication of a modulation type of the firstRF signal; determining a plurality of basis signals; projecting thefirst RF signal onto the plurality of basis signals to generate aplurality of basis coefficients for the first RF signal; generatingsecond classification information as a prediction of the firstclassification information by processing the plurality of basiscoefficients using at least one machine-learning network, wherein the atleast one machine-learning network comprises a convolutional neuralnetwork (CNN) or a recurrent neural network (RNN); calculating a measureof distance between the second classification information and the firstclassification information; and updating the at least onemachine-learning network based on the measure of distance between thesecond classification information and the first classificationinformation.
 2. The method of claim 1, comprising: providing the firstRF signal into an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and obtaining, as anoutput of the ADC, a plurality of sampled time series values, andprojecting the first RF signal onto the plurality of basis signals usingthe plurality of sampled time series values.
 3. The method of claim 1,wherein determining the first RF signal comprises generating the firstRF signal by software simulation.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereindetermining the first RF signal comprises: obtaining an initial RFsignal from a stored dataset; and augmenting the initial RF signal withone or more of a random phase offset, a random frequency offset, a timeoffset, time dilation, delay spread, a fading effect, a distortioneffect, an interference effect, a spatial propagation effect, adispersion effect, a non-linear effect, noise, or content alteration, toobtain the first RF signal.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the atleast one machine-learning network is configured to perform at least oneof higher-order moment determination or multi-carrier extraction.
 6. Themethod of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first classificationinformation or the second classification information indicates at leastone of (i) a type of traffic, protocol, or standard that is carried byor that is utilized to transmit the first RF signal, (ii) a type ofhardware apparatus that transmits or receives the first RF signal, (iii)a type of RF emission or a type of RF emission pattern occurring in acommunication medium carrying the first RF signal, or (iv) a presence ofone or more types of communications signals.
 7. The method of claim 1,comprising at least one of normalizing the first RF signal, filteringthe first RF signal, or synchronizing the first RF signal.
 8. The methodof claim 1, wherein updating the at least one machine-learning networkcomprises updating one or more weights in one or more layers of the atleast one machine-learning network to cause an objective function thatis based on classification error to have a determined characteristic. 9.The method of claim 1, further comprising: discriminating a modulationtype of a second RF signal using the at least one machine-learningnetwork, wherein discriminating the modulation type of the second RFsignal comprises: obtaining the second RF signal from a communicationmedium; providing the second RF signal as input to the at least onemachine-learning network; in response to providing the second RF signalas input to the at least one machine-learning network, obtaining asecond output of the at least one machine-learning network; anddetermining, from the second output of the at least one machine-learningnetwork, third classification information associated with the second RFsignal, the third classification information indicative of themodulation type of the second RF signal.
 10. The method of claim 9,comprising determining information about an emitting device of thesecond RF signal based on the third classification information.
 11. Themethod of claim 10, wherein the information about the emitting device ofthe second RF signal comprises an identity of the emitting device, ausage level of the emitting device, on-times of the emitting device, ora location of the emitting device.
 12. The method of claim 9, whereinthe third classification information associated with the second RFsignal comprises at least one of an estimate of an RF signal type of thesecond RF signal or a likelihood or a pseudo-probability of a presenceof a predetermined type of RF signal in the second RF signal.
 13. Themethod of claim 9, wherein obtaining the second RF signal from thecommunication medium comprises obtaining the second RF signal from acellular communication channel.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein themeasure of distance between the second classification information andthe first classification information comprises at least one of (i) across-entropy between the second classification information and thefirst classification information, or (ii) a geometric distance metricbetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information.
 15. The method of claim 1, comprising:updating the plurality of basis signals based at least on the measure ofdistance between the second classification information and the firstclassification information.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein theplurality of basis signals comprise In-Phase and Quadrature-Phase (I/Q)signals.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one machinelearning network is initialized using Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying(QPSK) basis signals, Gaussian Binary Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK)basis signals, or orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDM)basis signals.
 18. The method of claim 1, herein the at least onemachine learning network is initialized using a random set of basissignals.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one machinelearning network comprises a bank of multiple filters, and whereinprojecting the first RF signal onto the plurality of basis signalscomprises correlating the first RF signal with the multiple filters togenerate the plurality of basis coefficients.
 20. The method of claim19, wherein the multiple filters are each tuned to a correspondingfrequency.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of basissignals are parametrized, and wherein updating the at least onemachine-learning network comprises updating parameters of the pluralityof basis signals.
 22. One or more non-transitory computer readable mediastoring instructions that that are operable, when executed on one ormore processors, to cause the one or more processors to performoperations comprising: determining a first radio-frequency (RF) signal;determining first classification information associated with the firstRF signal, the first classification information comprising an indicationof a modulation type of the first RF signal; determining a plurality ofbasis signals; projecting the first RF signal onto the plurality ofbasis signals to generate a plurality of basis coefficients for thefirst RF signal; generating second classification information as aprediction of the first classification information by processing theplurality of basis coefficients using at least one machine-learningnetwork, wherein the at least one machine-learning network comprises aconvolutional neural network (CNN) or a recurrent neural network (RNN);calculating a measure of distance between the second classificationinformation and the first classification information; and updating theat least one machine-learning network based on the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information.
 23. The one or more non-transitory computerreadable media of claim 22, wherein determining the first RF signalcomprises at least one of (i) generating the first RF signal by softwaresimulation; or (ii) obtaining an initial RF signal from a storeddataset, and augmenting the initial RF signal with one or more of arandom phase offset, a random frequency offset, a time offset, timedilation, delay spread, a fading effect, a distortion effect, aninterference effect, a spatial propagation effect, a dispersion effect,a non-linear effect, noise, or content alteration, to obtain the firstRF signal.
 24. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media ofclaim 22, wherein the at least one machine-learning network isconfigured to perform at least one of higher-order moment determinationor multi-carrier extraction.
 25. The one or more non-transitory computerreadable media of claim 22, wherein at least one of the firstclassification information or the second classification informationindicates at least one of (i) a type of traffic, protocol, or standardthat is carried by or that is utilized to transmit the first RF signal,(ii) a type of hardware apparatus that transmits or receives the firstRF signal, (iii) a type of RF emission or a type of RF emission patternoccurring in a communication medium carrying the first RF signal, or(iv) a presence of one or more types of communications signals.
 26. Theone or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 22, whereinthe operations comprise: discriminating a modulation type of a second RFsignal using the at least one machine-learning network, whereindiscriminating the modulation type of the second RF signal comprises:obtaining the second RF signal from a communication medium; providingthe second RF signal as input to the at least one machine-learningnetwork; in response to providing the second RF signal as input to theat least one machine-learning network, obtaining a second output of theat least one machine-learning network; and determining, from the secondoutput of the at least one machine-learning network, thirdclassification information associated with the second RF signal, thethird classification information indicative of the modulation type ofthe second RF signal.
 27. The one or more non-transitory computerreadable media of claim 26, wherein the operations comprise determining,based on the third classification information, an identity of anemitting device of the second RF signal, a usage level of the emittingdevice, on-times of the emitting device, or a location of the emittingdevice.
 28. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media ofclaim 26, wherein the third classification information associated withthe second RF signal comprises at least one of an estimate of an RFsignal type of the second RF signal or a likelihood or apseudo-probability of a presence of a predetermined type of RF signal inthe second RF signal.
 29. The one or more non-transitory computerreadable media of claim 22, comprising: updating the plurality of basissignals based at least on the measure of distance between the secondclassification information and the first classification information. 30.A system comprising: one or more processors; and one or more storagedevices storing instructions that are operable, when executed on the oneor more processors, to cause the one or more processors to performoperations comprising: determining a first radio-frequency (RF) signal;determining first classification information associated with the firstRF signal, the first classification information comprising an indicationof a modulation type of the first RF signal; determining a plurality ofbasis signals; projecting the first RF signal onto the plurality ofbasis signals to generate a plurality of basis coefficients for thefirst RF signal; generating second classification information as aprediction of the first classification information by processing theplurality of basis coefficients using at least one machine-learningnetwork, wherein the at least one machine-learning network comprises aconvolutional neural network (CNN) or a recurrent neural network (RNN);calculating a measure of distance between the second classificationinformation and the first classification information; and updating theat least one machine-learning network based on the measure of distancebetween the second classification information and the firstclassification information.
 31. The system of claim 30, whereindetermining the first RF signal comprises at least one of (i) generatingthe first RF signal by software simulation; or (ii) obtaining an initialRF signal from a stored dataset, and augmenting the initial RF signalwith one or more of a random phase offset, a random frequency offset, atime offset, time dilation, delay spread, a fading effect, a distortioneffect, an interference effect, a spatial propagation effect, adispersion effect, a non-linear effect, noise, or content alteration, toobtain the first RF signal.
 32. The system of claim 30, wherein the atleast one machine-learning network is configured to perform at least oneof higher-order moment determination or multi-carrier extraction. 33.The system of claim 30, wherein at least one of the first classificationinformation or the second classification information indicates at leastone of (i) a type of traffic, protocol, or standard that is carried byor that is utilized to transmit the first RF signal, (ii) a type ofhardware apparatus that transmits or receives the first RF signal, (iii)a type of RF emission or a type of RF emission pattern occurring in acommunication medium carrying the first RF signal, or (iv) a presence ofone or more types of communications signals.
 34. The system of claim 30,wherein the operations comprise: discriminating a modulation type of asecond RF signal using the at least one machine-learning network,wherein discriminating the modulation type of the second RF signalcomprises: obtaining the second RF signal from a communication medium;providing the second RF signal as input to the at least onemachine-learning network; in response to providing the second RF signalas input to the at least one machine-learning network, obtaining asecond output of the at least one machine-learning network; anddetermining, from the second output of the at least one machine-learningnetwork, third classification information associated with the second RFsignal, the third classification information indicative of themodulation type of the second RF signal.
 35. The system of claim 34,wherein the operations comprise determining, based on the thirdclassification information, an identity of an emitting device of thesecond RF signal, a usage level of the emitting device, on-times of theemitting device, or a location of the emitting device.
 36. The system ofclaim 34, wherein the third classification information associated withthe second RF signal comprises at least one of an estimate of an RFsignal type of the second RF signal or a likelihood or apseudo-probability of a presence of a predetermined type of RF signal inthe second RF signal.